Behringer PROMIC2200 k= k22 + k32, 5 pentode, Formula for calculating total harmonic distortion

ULTRAGAIN PRO MIC2200

Fig. 1.5: pentode

In a triode the capacitance between grid and anode is a problem with regard to high frequencies and large amplification factors. For this reason, the pentode has a positively charged screen grid between the control grid and the anode. However, the positive charge of the screen grid attracts electrons emitted from the anode plate when it is hit by arriving electrons. To prevent this electron emission, a decelerating or suppressor grid is placed between anode and screen grid. As it is negatively charged it blocks the electrons, so that they cannot reach the screen grid. Pentodes are most commonly used in power stages.

1.2.3 Properties of tubes

In general, the saturation (overdriving) of both transistor and tube-based circuits results in various types of distortion. These phenomena are quite complex in the real world, but for the sake of a straightforward mathematical description we are going to classify them as linear and non-linear distortion. Linear distortion is produced by frequency-dependent amplification or attenuation processes such as they occur in all kinds of filters and equalizers. Linear-distortion signals have the same frequency portions both on the input and output sides, but with different phase positions and amplitudes. Non-linear distortions have additional harmonics and distortion components that were not contained in the original input signal.

For example, when the simplest of all oscillations, a sine wave with a fixed frequency f, is overdriven, new oscillations with frequencies of 2*f, 3*f, etc. (integral multiples of the original frequency) are produced. These new frequencies are referred to as upper harmonics grouped as odd and even harmonics.

Unlike the transistor, saturated tubes mostly produce even harmonics which are perceived by the human ear as more pleasant in sound than odd harmonics. Another important aspect lies in the fact that tubes produce distortion more gradually than transistors, which is why we speak of the “saturation” of a tube stage. When you overdrive a transistor you get a sudden square deformation of the sine signal applied at the input, which produces an extreme harmonic spectrum at the output.

Non-linear distortions are measured with a distortion factor that consists of the total harmonic distortion [k] and partial harmonic distortions [kn]. The latter are defined as the ratio between the voltage of a single harmonic and the voltage of the distorted overall signal. Thus, the content of even harmonics is expressed as k2, k4, ... and that of odd harmonics as k1, k3, ... .

kn = Un

U

Formula for calculating partial harmonic distortion

The total harmonic distortion is the root of all squared distortion factors of the second and third degrees. Since the higher harmonics have only little impact on the measured results, they can be neglected.

k= k22 + k32

Formula for calculating total harmonic distortion

In tube circuits the distortion factor k2 is used to describe an effect which the human ear classifies as “pleasant”. Also the frequency bands in which distortion occurs play an important role because the human ear differentiates very clearly, in particular, in the frequency range of human speech.

10 1. INTRODUCTION