Declare Local Functions as Static | AMD x86 manual

AMD Athlon™ Processor x86 Code Optimization

22007E/0 — November 1999

case combine( 1, 1 ): for( i ... ) {

DoWork1( i );

DoWork3( i );

}

break;

default:

break;

}

The trick here is that there is some up-front work involved in generating all the combinations for the switch constant and the total amount of code has doubled. However, it is also clear that the inner loops are "if()-free". In ideal cases where the “DoWork*()” functions are inlined, the successive functions will have greater overlap leading to greater parallelism than would be possible in the presence of intervening “if()” statements.

The same idea can be applied to constant “switch() ” statements, or combinations of “switch()” statements and “if()” statements inside of “for()” loops. The method for combining the input constants gets more complicated but will be worth it for the performance benefit.

However, the number of inner loops can also substantially increase. If the number of inner loops is prohibitively high, then only the most common cases need to be dealt with directly, and the remaining cases can fall back to the old code in a "default:" clause for the “switch()” statement.

This typically comes up when the programmer is considering runtime generated code. While runtime generated code can lead to similar levels of performance improvement, it is much harder to maintain, and the developer must do their own optimizations for their code generation without the help of an available compiler.

Declare Local Functions as Static

Functions that are not used outside the file in which they are defined should always be declared static, which forces internal linkage. Otherwise, such functions default to external linkage,

24	Declare Local Functions as Static

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AMD x86 manual Declare Local Functions as Static

Contents

AMD AthlonTM Processor Trademarks Contents Instruction Decoding Optimizations Cache and Memory Optimizations Scheduling Optimizations Floating-Point Optimizations General x86 Optimization Guidelines 127 Appendix B Pipeline and Execution Unit Resources Overview Appendix E Programming the Mtrr and PAT List of Figures Xii List of Tables Xiv Revision History Xvi Introduction About this Document Source Level Optimizations. Describes optimizations that AMD Athlon Processor Family AMD Athlon Processor Microarchitecture Summary AMD Athlon Processor Microarchitecture Summary AMD Athlon Processor x86 Code Optimization Top Optimizations Memory Size and Alignment Issues Optimization StarGroup I Optimizations Essential Optimizations Use the 3DNow! Prefetch and Prefetchw Instructions Group II Optimizations-Secondary Optimizations Select DirectPath Over VectorPath InstructionsLoad-Execute Instruction Usage Use Load-Execute Instructions Use 3DNow! Instructions Take Advantage of Write CombiningAvoid Branches Dependent on Random Data Avoid Placing Code and Data in the Same 64-Byte Cache Line 22007E/0 November Source Level Optimizations Use 32-Bit Data Types for Integer Code Example 1 Avoid Consider the Sign of Integer OperandsExample Preferred Use Array Style Instead of Pointer Style Code Example AvoidUse unsigned types for Use signed types for Vertex Example 2 Preferred Completely Unroll Small Loops Avoid Unnecessary Store-to-Load Dependencies Avoid Unnecessary Store-to-Load Dependencies Consider Expression Order in Compound Branch Conditions Optimize Switch Statements Switch Statement UsageUse Prototypes for All Functions Generic Loop Hoisting Use Const Type QualifierExample Generalization for Multiple Constant Control Code Declare Local Functions as Static Dynamic Memory Allocation Consideration Introduce Explicit Parallelism into Code Explicitly Extract Common Subexpressions Language Structure Component Considerations ExampleAvoid Preferred Original ordering Avoid Sort Local Variables According to Base Type SizeNew ordering, with padding Preferred Accelerating Floating-Point Divides and Square Roots Improved ordering Preferred Accelerating Floating-Point Divides and Square Roots Avoid Unnecessary Integer Division AMD Athlon Processor x86 Code Optimization Instruction Decoding Optimizations Overview Load-Execute Instruction Usage Select DirectPath Over VectorPath InstructionsUse Load-Execute Integer Instructions TOP Align Branch Targets in Program Hot Spots Use Short Instruction Lengths Avoid Partial Register Reads and Writes Example 2 Avoid Use 8-Bit Sign-Extended Immediates Replace Certain Shld Instructions with Alternative Code Use 8-Bit Sign-Extended Displacements Code Padding Using Neutral Code Fillers Recommendations for the AMD Athlon Processor Code Padding Using Neutral Code Fillers AMD Athlon Processor x86 Code Optimization NOP6EDI AMD Athlon Processor x86 Code Optimization Cache and Memory Optimizations Memory Size and Alignment IssuesAvoid Memory Size Mismatches Align Data Where Possible Use the 3DNow! Prefetch and Prefetchw Instructions Example Multiple Prefetches Code MOV ECX, -LARGENUM Determining Prefetch Distance Prefetch Distance = 200 DS/C bytes Take Advantage of Write Combining Avoid Placing Code and Data in the Same 64-Byte Cache Line Store-to-Load Forwarding Restrictions Store-to-Load Forwarding Pitfalls -True Dependencies Example 3 Avoid Example 4 Avoid Example 6 Avoid Example 5 PreferredExample 7 Avoid Stack Alignment Considerations Summary of Store-to-Load Forwarding Pitfalls to Avoid Align Tbyte Variables on Quadword Aligned Addresses Sort Variables According to Base Type Size Branch Optimizations Avoid Branches Dependent on Random Data AMD Athlon Processor Specific Code Blended AMD-K6and AMD Athlon Processor Code Example 6 Increment Ring Buffer Offset Always Pair Call and ReturnExample 7 Integer Signum Function Replace Branches with Computation in 3DNow! Code Muxing Constructs Code Sample Code Translated into 3DNow! Code3DNow! code MM5 Pfsub Psrad Avoid the Loop Instruction Avoid Far Control Transfer Instructions Avoid Recursive Functions Scheduling Optimizations Schedule Instructions According to their LatencyUnrolling Loops Complete Loop Unrolling Partial Loop Unrolling Without Loop Unrolling With Partial Loop Unrolling Deriving Loop Control For PartiallyUnrolled Loops Example 1 rolled loop Use Function Inlining Overview Avoid Address Generation Interlocks Always Inline Functions if Called from One Site Use Movzx and Movsx Minimize Pointer Arithmetic in Loops MOV ECX, Maxsize Push Memory Data Carefully Example 3 Preferred Push Memory Data Carefully Replace Divides with Multiplies Integer OptimizationsMultiplication by Reciprocal Division Utility Unsigned Division by Multiplication of Constant Simpler Code for Signed Division by Multiplication of ConstantRestricted Dividend Signed Division By Signed Division By 2nRemainder of Signed Integer 2 or Use Alternative Code When Multiplying by a Constant Integer 2n or -2n ADD REG1, REG1 REG1, REG2 SHL Use MMX Instructions for Integer-Only Work Latency of Repeated String Instructions Repeated String Instruction UsageGuidelines for Repeated String Instructions Using Movq Ensure DF=0 UPAlign Source Destination with Use XOR Instruction to Clear Integer Registers Efficient 64-Bit Integer Arithmetic Example 5 Right shift Example 4 Left shiftExample 6 Multiplication Example 7 Division EBX, ESP+12 Dividendlo Example 8 Remainder SHR EDX Efficient Implementation of Population Count Function Step Bit field. Thus the following computation is performed MOV EDX, EDX SHR Derivation of Multiplier Used for Integer Division by Utility sdiv.exe was compiled using the following code MOV ECX EDX Imul ADD SHR SAR Ensure All FPU Data is Aligned Floating-Point OptimizationsUse Multiplies Rather than Divides Floating-Point Compare Instructions Use Ffreep Macro to Pop One Register from the FPU Stack Avoid Using Extended-Precision Data Use the Fxch Instruction Rather than FST/FLD Pairs Minimize Floating-Point-to-Integer Conversions Example 1 Fast Example 2 Potentially faster Example 3 Potentially faster Example 4 Fastest Floating-Point Subexpression Elimination 104 Take Advantage of the Fsincos Instruction 106 Use 3DNow! Instructions 3DNow! and MMX OptimizationsUse Femms Instruction Optimized 14-Bit Precision Divide Use 3DNow! Instructions for Fast DivisionOptimized Full 24-Bit Precision Divide Pipelined Pair of 24-Bit Precision Divides Newton-Raphson Reciprocal Optimized 15-Bit Precision Square Root Optimized 24-Bit Precision Square Root Newton-Raphson Reciprocal Square Root 3DNow! and MMX Intra-Operand Swapping AMD AthlonSpecific Code Blended Code Fast Conversion of Signed Words to Floating-Point Use MMX Pxor to Negate 3DNow! Data Use MMX Pcmp Instead of 3DNow! Pfcmp Both NumbersPositive One Negative, One Positive Use MMX Instructions for Block Copies and Block Fills AMD-K6and AMD Athlon Processor Blended Code 116 Processor Specific Use MMX Pxor to Clear All Bits in an MMX Register Optimized Matrix Multiplication Use MMX Pcmpeqd to Set All Bits in an MMX Register MOV EBX, RES Optimized Matrix Multiplication 121 Data Use 3DNow! Pavgusb for MPEG-2 Motion Compensation MM0=QWORD1 Stream of Packed Unsigned Bytes Complex Number Arithmetic General x86 Optimization Guidelines Short Forms Register Operands DependenciesStack Allocation AMD Athlon Processor Microarchitecture Introduction AMD Athlon Processor Microarchitecture Superscalar Processor AMD Athlon Processor Microarchitecture 131 Predecode Branch Prediction Early Decoding Instruction Control Unit Data Cache Integer Scheduler Integer Execution Unit Floating-Point Scheduler Floating-Point Execution Unit 12 to Load-Store Unit LSU Load/Store Unit Write Combining L2 Cache ControllerAMD Athlon System Bus 140 AMD Athlon Processor Microarchitecture Pipeline and Execution Unit Resources Overview Fetch and Decode Pipeline Stages C T L R O M Cycle 1-FETCH Cycle 2-SCANCycle 3 DirectPath Cycle 3 VectorPath Integer Pipeline Stages Integer Pipeline Stages Cycle 7-SCHED Cycle 8-EXECCycle 9-ADDGEN Cycle 10 -DCACC Floating-Point Pipeline Stages Floating-Point Pipeline Stages Cycle 7-STKREN Cycle 8-REGRENCycle 9-SCHEDW Cycle 10 -SCHED Execution Unit Resources TerminologyOperands Results Integer Pipeline Operation Types Integer Pipeline OperationsInteger Decode Types Floating-Point Pipeline Operation Types Floating-Point Pipeline OperationsFloating-Point Decode Types Load/Store Unit Stages Load/Store Pipeline OperationsStage 1 Cycle Stage 2 Cycle Stage 3 Cycle Code Sample Analysis ADD EDI, EBX SHL Imul EAX, ECX INC ESI MOVINC EBX ADD ESI, EDX DEC EDX MOV EDI, ECX SUB Sample 2 Integer Register and Memory Load OperationsSAR Appendix C Implementation Write Combining Write-Combining Definitions and Abbreviations What is Write Combining?Programming Details Write-Combining Operations Write Combining Completion Events INIT, Halt AMD Athlon System Bus Commands Generation Rules Sending Write-Buffer Data to the System 160 Write-Combining Operations Performance-Monitoring Counters Performance Counter Usage PerfEvtSel30 MSRs MSR Addresses C0010000h-C0010003h PerfEvtSel30 Registers Performance Counter Usage 163 Performance-Monitoring Counters 65h 73hSnoop hits 74h Event Source Event Description Waited to use the L2Instruction cache fetches Instruction cache misses PerfCtr30 MSRs MSR Addresses C0010004h-C0010007h Event and Time-Stamp Monitoring Software Starting and Stopping the Performance-Monitoring Counters Monitoring Counter Overflow 170 Monitoring Counter Overflow Programming the Mtrr Memory Type Range Register Mtrr Mechanism 172 Memory Type Range Register Mtrr Mechanism FFFFFFFFh Fixed Ranges100000h Kbytes each Fixed Ranges C0000h 80000h Memory Types Memory Type EncodingsMtrr Capability Register Format Memory Type Range Register Mtrr Mechanism 175 Standard Mtrr Types and Properties Attribute Table PAT Attribute Table MSR 277h PAT Entry Reset Value PATi 3-Bit EncodingsMTRRs and PAT PATi Effective Memory Type Based on PAT and MTRRs PAT Memory Type Mtrr Memory Type Final Output Memory Types Input Memory Type Attribute Table PAT 181 7FFFF 6FFFF 5FFFF 4FFFF 3FFFF 2FFFF 1FFFF 0FFFF 9FFFF 9BFFF 97FFF 93FFF 8FFFF 8BFFF 87FFF 83FFFBffff Bbfff B7FFF B3FFF Affff Abfff A7FFF A3FFF C7FFF C6FFF C5FFF C4FFF C3FFF C2FFF C1FFF C0FFF Attribute Table PAT 183 MTRRphysMaskn Register Format MTRR-Related Model-Specific Register MSR Map 186 Appendix F Instruction Dispatch Execution Resources Integer Instructions AAAAAD AAM ModR/M Decode Byte ADC mreg8, reg8ADC mem8, reg8 ADC mreg16/32, reg16/32 Bound Bswap EAXBswap ECX Bswap EDX CBW/CWDE CLCCLD CLI CMOVE/CMOVZ reg16/32, reg16/32 0Fh CMOVE/CMOVZ reg16/32, mem16/32 0FhCMOVG/CMOVNLE reg16/32, reg16/32 0Fh CMOVG/CMOVNLE reg16/32, mem16/32 0Fh Cpuid CWD/CDQDAA DAS Enter AL, DXAX, DX EAX, DX Invd Invlpg Lahf Leave LOOPE/LOOPZ disp8 E1h LOOPNE/LOOPNZ disp8 E0hLSL reg16/32, mreg16/32 0Fh 03h LSL reg16/32, mem16/32 0Fh 03h NOP Xchg EAX, EAX OUT DX, AL OUT DX, AXOUT DX, EAX POP ES POP EBX POP ESPPOP EBP POP ESI Rdpmc RdmsrRdtsc Sahf SBB mreg16/32, reg16/32 SBB mem16/32, reg16/32SBB reg8, mreg8 SBB reg8, mem8 Sets mreg8 Sets mem8Setns mreg8 Setns mem8 STD STCSTI Syscall SysenterSysexit Sysret Xchg EAX, EAX Xchg EAX, ECXXchg EAX, EDX Xchg EAX, EBX MMX Instructions Emms Pandn mmreg1, mmreg2 DFhPandn mmreg, mem64 Pcmpeqb mmreg1, mmreg2 FADD/FMUL MMX Extensions FPU Floating-Point Instructions Fcos FcomppFdecstp Finit FincstpFLD1 FLDL2E FLDL2TFLDLG2 FLDLN2 Fstsw AX FtstFucom Fucomp DNow! Instructions Femms DNow! Extensions DirectPath versus VectorPath Instructions DirectPath Instructions BT mreg16/32, reg16/32 BT mreg16/32, imm8 BT mem16/32, imm8 DirectPath Integer InstructionsCBW/CWDE CLC CMC DEC mreg8 DEC mem8 DEC mreg16/32 DEC mem16/32 INC mreg8 INC mem8 INC mreg16/32 INC mem16/32 JO short disp8 222 DirectPath Instructions DirectPath Instructions 223 224 DirectPath Instructions Wait Xchg EAX, EAX 226 DirectPath Instructions DirectPath MMX Instructions DirectPath MMX Extensions DirectPath Floating-Point Instructions Fcompp FdecstpFist mem16int FLD1 FLDL2E FLDL2T FLDLG2 FLDLN2 Fldpi Fldz Ftst Fucom Fucomp Fucompp Fwait Fxch VectorPath Instructions VectorPath Integer InstructionsAAA AAD AAM AAS CLD CLI Clts Instruction Mnemonic DIV EAX, mem16/32 AL, DX AX, DX EAX, DX Invd Invlpg POP mreg 16/32 POP mem 16/32 Push mreg16/32 Push mem16/32PUSHA/PUSHAD PUSHF/PUSHFD Rdmsr Rdpmc Rdtsc VectorPath MMX Instructions VectorPath MMX ExtensionsSyscall Sysenter Sysexit Sysret Wbinvd Wrmsr VectorPath Floating-Point Instructions Fptan Fpatan FrndintFscale Fsin Fsincos Fxam Fxtract FYL2X FYL2XP1 236 Index 238 Index Index 239 240 Index